Control risk Essay

The auditor obtains an understanding of the design and implementation of internal Control to make a preliminary assessment of control risk as part of the auditor’s overall Assessment of the risk of material misstatements. The auditor uses this preliminary assessment of control risk to plan the audit for each material class of transactions. However, in some instances the auditor may learn that the control deficiencies are significant such that the client’s financial statements may not be auditable. So, before making a preliminary assessment of control risk for each material class of transactions, the auditor must first decide whether the entity is auditable. Two primary factors determine auditability: the integrity of management and the ade – quacy of accounting records. If management lacks integrity, most auditors will not accept the engagement. The accounting records are an important source of audit evidence for most audit objectives. If the accounting records a re deficient, necessary audit evidence may not be available. For example, if the client has not kept duplicate sales invoices and vendors’ invoices, it is usually impractical to do an audit. In complex IT environments, much of the transaction information is available only in electronic form without generating a visible audit trail of documents and records. In that case, the company is usually still auditable; however, auditors must assess whether they have the necessary skills to gather evidence that is in electronic form and can assign personnel with adequate IT training and experience. After obtaining an understanding of internal control, the auditor makes a preliminary assessment of control risk as part of the auditor’s overall assessment of the risk of material misstatement. This assessment is a measure of the auditor’s expectation that internal controls will prevent material misstatements from occurring or detect and correct them if they have occurred. The starting point for most auditors is the assessment of entity-level controls. By nature, entity-level controls, such as many of the elements contained in the control environment, risk assessment, and monitoring components, have an overarching impact on most major types of transactions in each transaction cycle. For example, an ineffective board of directors or management’s failure to have any process to identify, assess, or manage key risks, has the potential to undermine controls for most of the transaction-related audit objectives. Thus,  auditors generally assess entity-level controls before assessing transaction specific controls. Once auditors determine that entity-level controls are designed and placed in operation, they next make a preliminary assessment for each transaction-related audit objective for each major type of transaction in each transaction cycle. For example, in the sales and collection cycle, the types of transactions usually involve sales, sales returns and allowances, cash receipts, and the provision for and write-off of uncollectible accounts. The auditor also makes the preliminary assessment for controls affecting audit objectives for balance sheet accounts and presentations Many auditors use a control risk matrix to assist in the control risk assessment process at the transaction level. The purpose is to provide a convenient way to organize assessing control risk for each audit objective. the control risk matrix for transaction-related audit objectives, auditors use a similar control risk matrix format to assess control risk for balance-related and presentation and disclosure-related audit objectives. Identify Audit Objectives The first step in the assessment is to identify the audit objectives for classes of transactions, account balances, and presentation and dis closure to which the assessment applies. For example, this is done for classes of transactions by applying the specific transaction-related audit objectives introduced earlier, which were stated in general form, to each major type of transaction for the entity. For example, the auditor makes an assessment of the occurrence objective for sales and a separate assessment of the completeness objective. Identify Existing Controls Next, the auditor uses the information discussed in the previous section on obtaining and documenting an understanding of internal control to identify the controls that contribute to accomplishing transaction-related audit objectives. One way for the auditor to do this is to identify controls to satisfy each objective. For example, the auditor can use knowledge of the client’s system to identify controls that are likely to prevent errors or fraud in the occurrence transaction-related audit objective. The same thing can be done for all other objectives. It is also helpful for the auditor to use the five control activities (separation of duties, proper authorization,  Adequate documents and records, physical control over assets and records, and Independent checks on performance) as reminders of controls. For example: Is there adequate separation of duties and how is it achieved? Are transactions properly authorized? Are pre-numbered documents properly accounted for? Are key master files properly restricted from unauthorized access? The auditor should identify and include only those controls that are expected to have the greatest effect on meeting the transaction-related audit objectives. These are often called key controls. The reason for including only key controls is that they will be sufficient to achieve the transaction-related audit objectives and also provide audit efficiency. Associate Controls with Related Audit Objectives Each control satisfies one or more related audit objectives. This can be seen for transaction-relatedaudit objectives. The body of the matrix is used to show how each control contributes To the accomplishment of one or more transaction-related audit objectives. In this , a C was entered in each cell where a control partially or fully satisfied an bjective. A similar control risk matrix would be completed for balance-related and presentation and disclosure-related audit objectives. For example, the mailing of statements to customers satisfies three objectives in the audit of Hillsburg Hardware, which is indicated by the placement of each C on the row . Identify and Evaluate Control Deficiencies, Significant Deficiencies, and Material Weaknesses Auditors must evaluate whether key controls are absent in the design of internal control over financial reporting as a part of evaluating control risk and the likelihood of financial statement misstatements. Auditing standards define three levels of the absence of internal controls: 1. Control deficiency. A control deficiency exists if the design or operation of controls does not permit company personnel to prevent or detect mis-statements on a timely basis in the normal course of performing theirassigned functions. A design deficiency exists if a necessary control is missing or not properly designed. An operation deficiency exists if a well-designed control does not operate as designed or if the person performing the control is insufficiently qualified or authorized. 2. Significant deficiency. A significant deficiency exists if one or more control deficiencies exist that is less severe than a material weakness (defined below), but important enough to merit attention by those responsible for oversight of the company’s financial reporting. 3. Material weakness. A material weakness exists if a significant deficiency, by itself, or in combination with other significant deficiencies, results in a reason – able possibility that internal control will not prevent or detect material financial statement misstatements on a timely basis. To determine if a significant internal control deficiency or deficiencies are a material weakness, they must be evaluated along two dimensions: likelihood and significance. If there is more than a reasonable possibility (likelihood) that a material misstatement (significance) could result from the significant deficiency or deficiencies, then it is considered a material weakness. A five-step approach can be used to identify deficiencies, significant deficiencies, and Material weaknesses. 1. Identify existing controls. Because deficiencies and material weaknesses are the absence of adequate controls, the auditor must first know which controls exist. The methods for identifying controls have already been discussed. 2. Identify the absence of key controls. Internal control questionnaires, flow charts, and walkthroughs are useful tools to identify where controls are lacking and the likelihood of misstatement is therefore increased. It is also useful to examine the control risk matrix, such as to look for objectives where there are no or only a few controls to prevent or detect misstatements. 3. Consider the possibility of compensating controls. A compensating control is one Elsewhere in the system that offsets the absence of a key control. A common example in a small business is the active involvement of the owner. When a compensating control exists, there is no longer a significant deficiency or material weakness. 4. Decide whether there is a significant deficiency or material weakness. The likelihood of misstatements and their materiality are used to evaluate if there are significant deficiencies or material weaknesses. 5. Determine potential misstatements that could result. This step is intended to identify specific misstatements that are likely to result because of the significant deficiency or material weakness. The importance of a significant deficiency  or material weakness is directly related to the likelihood and materiality of potential misstatements. Associate Significant Deficiencies and Material Weaknesses with Related Audit Objectives The same as for controls, each significant deficiency or material weakness can apply to one or more related audit objectives. In the case of Hillsburg, there are two significant deficiencies, and each applies to only one transaction-related objective. The significant deficiencies are shown in the body of the figure by a D in the appropriate objecti ve column. Assess Control Risk for Each Related Audit Objective After controls, significant deficiencies, and material weaknesses are identified and associated with transaction-related audit objectives, the auditor can assess control risk for transaction related audit objectives. This is the critical decision in the evaluation of internal control. The auditor uses all of the information discussed previously to make a subjective control risk assessment for each objective. There are different ways to express this assessment. Some auditors use a subjective expression such as high, moderate, or low. Others use numerical probabilities such as 1.0, 0.6, or 0.2. Again, the control risk matrix is a useful tool for making the assessment. This assessment is not the final one. Before making the final assessment at the end of the integrated audit, the auditor will test controls and perform substantive tests. These Procedures can either support the preliminary assessment or cause the auditor to make changes. In some cases, management can correct deficiencies and material weaknesses before the auditor does significant testing, which may permit a reduction in control risk. After a preliminary assessment of control risk is made for sales and cash receipts, the auditor can complete the three control risk rows of the evidence-planning worksheet . If tests of controls results do not support the preliminary assessment of control risk, the auditor must modify the worksheet later. Alternatively, the auditor can wait until tests of controls are done to complete the three control risk rows of the worksheet. As part of understanding internal control and assessing control risk, the auditor is required to communicate certain matters to those charged with governance. This Information and other recommendations about controls are also often communicated to management. Communications to Those  Charged With Governance The auditor must communicate significant deficiencies and material weaknesses in writing to those charged with governance as soon as the auditor becomes aware of their existence. The communication is usually addressed to the audit committee and to management. Timely communications may provide management an opportunity to address control deficiencies before management’s report on internal control must be issued. In some instances, deficiencies can be corrected sufficiently early such that both management and the auditor can conclude that controls are operating effectively as of the balance sheet date. Regardless, these communications must be made no later than 60 days following the audit report release. Management Letters In addition to these matters, auditors often identify less significant internal control-related issues, as well as opportunities for the client to make operational improvements. These should also be communicated to the client. The form of communication is often a separate letter for that purpose, called a management letter. Although management letters are not required by auditing standards, auditors generally prepare them as a value-added service of the audit. Test of controls We’ve examined how auditors link controls, significant deficiencies, and material Weaknesses in internal control to related audit objectives to assess control risk for each objective. Now we’ll address how auditors test those controls that are used to support a control risk assessment. For example, each key control that the auditor intends to rely on to support a control risk of medium or low must be supported by sufficient tests of controls. We will deal with tests of controls for both audits of internal control for financial reporting and audits of financial statements. Assessing control risk requires the auditor to consider both the design and operation of controls to evaluate whether they will likely be effective in meeting related audit objectives. During the understanding phase, the auditor will have already gathered some evidence in support of both the design of the controls and their implementation by using procedures to obtain an understanding . In most cases, the auditor will not have gathered  enough evidence to reduce assessed control risk to a sufficiently low level. The auditor must therefore obtain additional evidence about the operating effectiveness of controls throughout all, or at least most, of the period under audit. The procedures to test effectiveness of controls in support of a reduced assessed control risk are called tests of controls. If the results of tests of controls support the design and operation of controls as expected, the auditor uses the same assessed control risk as the preliminary assessment. If, however, the tests of controls indicate that the controls did not operate effectively, the assessed control risk must be reconsidered. For example, the tests may indicate that the application of a control was curtailed midway through the year or that the person applying it made frequent misstatements. In such situations, the auditor uses a higher assessed control risk, unless compensating controls for the same related audit objectives are identified and found to be effective. Of course, the auditor must also consider the impact of those controls that are not operating effectively on the auditor’s Report on internal control. Procedures for Tests of Controls The auditor is likely to use four types of procedures to support the operating effectiveness of internal controls. Management’s testing of internal control will likely include the same types of procedures. The four types of procedures are as follows: 1. Make inquiries of appropriate client personnel. Although inquiry is not a highly reliable source of evidence about the effective operation of controls, it is still appropriate. For example, to determine that unauthorized personnel are denied access to computer files, the auditor may make inquiries of the person who controls the computer library and of the person who controls online access security password assignments. 2. Examine documents, records, and reports. Many controls leave a clear trail of documentary evidence that can be used to test controls. Suppose, for example, that when a customer order is received, it is used to create a customer sales order, which is approved for credit. Then the customer order is attached to the sales order as authorization for further processing. The auditor can test the control by examining the documents to make sure that they are complete and properly matched and that required signatures or initials are present. 3. Observe control-related  activities. Some controls do not leave an evidence trail, which means that it is not possible to examine evidence that the control was executed at a later date. For example, separation of duties relies on specific persons performing specific tasks, and there is typically no documentation of the separate performance. For controls that leave no documentary evidence, the auditor generally observes them being applied at various points during the year. 4. Reperform client procedures. There are also control-related activities for which there are related documents and records, but their content is insufficient for the auditor’s purpose of assessing whether controls are operating effectively. For example, assume that prices on sales invoices are obtained from the master price list, but no indication of the control is documented on the sales invoices. In these cases, it is common for the auditor to reperform the control activity to see whether the proper results were obtained. For this example, the auditor can re perform the procedure by tracing the sales prices to the authorized price list in effect at the date of the transaction. If no misstatements are found, the auditor can conclude that the procedure . Extent of Procedures The extent to which tests of controls are applied depends on the preliminary assessed control risk. If the auditor wants a lower assessed control risk, more extensive tests of controls are applied, both in terms of the number of controls tested and the extent of the tests for each control. For example, if the auditor wants to use a low assessed control risk, a larger sample size for documentation, observation, and re performance procedures should be applied. The extent of testing also depends on the frequency of the operation of the controls, and whether it is manual or automated. Reliance on Evidence from the Prior Year’s Audit When auditors plan to use evidence about the operating effectiveness of internal control obtained in prior audits, auditing standards require tests of the controls’ effectiveness at least every third year. If auditors determine that a key control has been changed since it was last tested, they should test it in the current year. When there are a number of controls tested in prior audits that have not been changed, auditing standards  require auditors to test some of those controls each year to ensure there is a rotation of controls testing throughout the three year period. Testing of Controls Related to Significant Risks Significant risks are those risks that the auditor believes require special audit consideration. When the auditor’s risk assessment procedures identify significant risks, the auditor is required to test the operating effectiveness of controls that mitigate these risks in the current year audit, if the auditor plans to rely on those controls to support a control risk assessment below 100%. The greater the risk, the more audit evidence the auditor should obtain that controls are operating effectively. Testing Less Than the Entire Audit Period Recall that management’s report on internal control deals with the effectiveness of internal controls as of the end of the fiscal year. PCAOB Standard 5 requires the auditor to perform tests of controls that are adequate to determine whether controls are operating effectively at year-end. The timing of the auditor’s tests of controls will therefore depend on the nature of the controls and when the company uses them. For controls that are applied throughout the accounting period, it is usually practical to test them at an interim date. The auditor will then determine later if changes in controls occurred in the period not tested and decide the implication of any change. Controls dealing with financial statement preparation occur only quarterly or at year-end and must therefore also be tested at quarter and year-end. Relationship between Tests of Controls and Procedures to Obtaining Understanding There is a significant overlap between tests of controls and procedures to obtain an understanding. Both include inquiry, documentation, and observation. There are two primary differences in the application of these common procedures. 1. In obtaining an understanding of internal control, the procedures to obtain an understanding are applied to all controls identified during that phase. Tests of controls, on the other hand, are applied only when the assessed control risk has not been satisfied by the procedures to obtain an understanding. 2. Procedures to obtain an  understanding are performed only on one or a few transactions or, in the case of observations, at a single point in time. Tests of controls are performed on larger samples of transactions (perhaps 20 to 100), and often, observations are made at more than one point in time. For key controls, tests of controls other than re performance are essentially an Extension of procedures to obtain an understanding. Therefore, assuming the auditors plan to obtain a low assessed control risk from the beginning of the integrated audit, they will likely combine both types of procedures and perform them simultaneously. One option is to perform the audit procedures separately, where minimum procedures to obtain an understanding of design and operation are performed, followed by additional tests of controls. An alternative is to combine both columns and do them simultaneously. The same amount of evidence is accumulated in the second approach, but more efficiently. The determination of the appropriate sample size for tests of controls is an important audit decisions. Detection risk and the design of substantive tests We’ve focused on how auditors assess control risk for each related audit objective and support control risk assessments with tests of controls. The completion of these activities is sufficient for the audit of internal control over financial reporting, even though the report will not be finalized until the auditor completes the audit of financial statements. The auditor uses the control risk assessment and results of tests of controls to determine planned detection risk and related substantive tests for the audit of financial statements. The auditor does this by linking the control risk assessments to the balance related audit objectives for the accounts affected by the major transaction types and to the four presentations and disclosure audit objectives. The appropriate level of detection risk for each balance-related audit objective is then decided using the audit risk model. The relationship of transaction-related audit objectives to balance-related audit objectives and the selection and design of audit procedures for substantive tests of financial statement. Types of test In developing an overall audit plan, auditors use five types of tests to determine whether financial statements are fairly stated. Auditors use risk  assessment procedures to assess the risk of material misstatement, represented by the combination of inherent risk and control risk. The other four types of tests represent further audit procedures performed in response to the risks identified. Each audit procedure falls into one, and sometimes more than one, of these five categories. Figure 13-1 shows the relationship of the four types of further audit procedures to the audit risk model. As Figure 13-1 illustrates, tests of controls are performed to support a reduced assessment of control risk, while auditors use analytical procedures and tests of details of balances to satisfy planned detection risk. Substantive tests of transactions affect both control risk and planned detection risk, because they test the effectiveness of internal controls and the dollar amounts of transactions. Risk Assessment Procedures TThe second standard of fieldwork requires the auditor to obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment, including its internal control, to assess the risk of material misstatement in the client’s financial statements. Risk assessment procedures are performed to assess the risk of material misstatement in the financial statements. The auditor performs tests of controls, substantive tests of transactions, analytical procedures, and tests of details of balances in response to the auditor’s assessment of the risk of material misstatements. The combination of these our types of further audit procedures provides the basis for the auditor’s opinion, as illustrated by Figure 13-1. A major part of the auditor’s risk assessment procedures are done to obtain an Understanding of internal control. Procedures to obtain an understanding of internal control were studied and focus on both the design and implementation of internal control and are used to assess control risk for each transaction-related audit objectively Tests of Controls EThe auditor’s understanding of internal control is used to assess control risk for each transaction-related audit objective. Examples are assessing the accuracy objective for sales transactions as low and the occurrence objective as moderate. When control policies and procedures are believed to be effectively designed, the auditor assesses control risk at a level that reflects the relative effectiveness of those controls. To obtain sufficient  appropriate evidence to support that assessment, the auditor performs tests of controls.S Tests of controls, either manual or automated, may include the following types of evidence. (Note that the first three procedures are the same as those used to obtain an understanding of internal control.) †¢ Make inquiries of appropriate client personnel †¢ Examine documents, records, and reports †¢ Observe control-related activities †¢ Reperform client procedures Auditors perform a system walkthrough as part of procedures to obtain an under – standing to help them determine whether controls are in place. The walkthrough is normally applied to one or a few transactions and follows that transaction through the entire process. For example, the auditor may select one sales transaction for a system walk through of the credit approval process, then follow the credit approval process from initiation of the sales transaction through the granting of credit. Tests of controls are also used to determine whether these controls are effective and usually involve testing a sample of transactions. As a test of the operating effectiveness of the credit approval process, for example, the auditor might examine a sample of 50 sales transactions from throughout the year to determine whether credit was granted before the shipment of goods. Procedures to obtain an understanding of internal control generally do not provide sufficient appropriate evidence that a control is operating effectively. An exception may apply for automated controls because of their consistent performance. The auditor’s procedures to determine whether the automated control has been implemented may also serve as the test of that control, if the auditor determines there is minimal risk that the automated control has been changed since the understanding was obtained. Then, no additional tests of controls would be required. The amount of additional evidence required for tests of controls depends on two things: 1. The extent of evidence obtained in gaining the understanding of internal control 2. The planned reduction in control risk Figure 13-2 (p. 406) shows the role of tests of controls in the audit of the sales and collection cycle relative to other tests performed to provide  sufficient appropriate evidence for the auditor’s opinion. Note the un shaded circles with the words â€Å"Audited by TOC.† For simplicity, we make two assumptions: Only sales and cash receipts trans – actions and three general ledger balances make up the sales and collection cycle and the beginning balances in cash and accounts receivable were audited in the previous year and are considered correct. If auditors verify that sales and cash receipts transactions are correctly recorded in the accounting records and posted to the general ledger, they can conclude that the ending balances in accounts receivable and sales are correct. (Cash disbursements transactions will OF have to be audited before the auditor can reach a conclusion about the ending balance in the cash account.) One way the auditor can verify recording of transactions is to perform tests of controls. If controls are in place over sales and cash receipts transactions, the auditor can perform tests of controls to determine whether the six transaction-related audit objectives are being met for that cycle. Substantive tests of transactions, which we will examine in the next section, also affect audit assurance for sales and cash receipts transactions. Substantive Tests of TransactionsSTS Substantive tests are procedures designed to test for dollar misstatements (often called monetary misstatements) that directly affect the correctness of financial statement balances. Auditors rely on three types of substantive tests: substantive tests of transactions, substantive analytical procedures, and tests of details of balances. Substantive tests of transactions are used to determine whether all six transactions related audit objectives have been satisfied for each class of transactions. Two of those objectives for sales transactions are recorded sales transactions exist (occurrence objective) and existing sales transactions are recorded (completeness objective for the six transaction-related audit objectives. When auditors are confident that all transactions were correctly recorded in the journals and correctly posted, considering all six transaction-related audit objectives, they can be confident that general ledger totals are correct. Figure 13-2 illustrates the role of substantive tests of transactions in the audit of the sales and collection cycle by lightly shaded circles with the words â€Å"Audited by STOT.† Observe that both tests of controls and substantive tests of transactions are performed for transactions in the cycle, not on the ending account  balances. The auditor verifies the recording and summarizing of sales and cash receipts transactions by performing substantive tests of transactions. Figure 13-2 shows one set of tests for sales and another for cash receipts. Analytical Procedures analytical procedures involve comparisons of recorded amounts to expectations developed by the auditor. Auditing standards require that they be done during planning and completing the audit. Although not required, analytical procedures may also be performed to audit an account balance. The two most important purposes of analytical procedures in the audit of account balances are to: 1. Indicate possible misstatements in the financial statements 2. Provide substantive evidence Analytical procedures done during planning typically differ from those done in the testing phase. Even if, for example, auditors calculate the gross margin during planning, they probably do it using interim data. Later, during the tests of the ending balances, they will recalculate the ratio using full-year data. If auditors believe that analytical procedures indicate a reasonable possibility of misstatement, they may perform additional analytical procedures or decide to modify tests of details of balances. When the auditor develops expectations using analytical procedures and concludes that the client’s ending balances in certain accounts appear reasonable, certain tests of details of balances may be eliminated or sample sizes reduced. Auditing standards state that analytical procedures are a type of substantive test (referred to as substantive analytical procedures), when they are performed to provide evidence about an account balance. The Extent to which auditors may be willing to rely on substantive analytical procedures in support of an account balance depends on several factors, including the precision of the expectation developed by the auditor, materiality, and the risk of material misstatement. Figure 13-2 illustrates the role of substantive analytical procedures in the audit of the sales and collection cycle by the dark shaded circles with the words â€Å"Audited by AP.† Observe that the auditor performs substantive analytical procedures on sales and Cash receipts transactions, as well as on the ending balances of the accounts in the cycle. Tests of Details of Balances Tests of details of balances focus on the ending general ledger balances for both balance sheet and income statement accounts. The primary emphasis in most tests of details of balances is on the balance sheet. Examples include confirmation of customer balances for accounts receivable, physical examination of inventory, and examination of vendors’ statements for accounts payable. Tests of ending balances are essential because the evidence is usually obtained from a source independent of the client, which is considered highly reliable. Much like for transactions, the auditor’s tests of details of balances must satisfy all balance-related audit objectives for each significant balance sheet account. Figure 13-2 illustrates the role of tests of details of balances by the circles with half dark and half light shading and the words â€Å"Audited by TDB.† Auditors perform detailed tests of the ending balances for sales and accounts receivable, including procedures such as confirmation of account receivable balances and sales cutoff tests. The extent of these tests depends on the results of tests of controls, substantive tests of transactions, and substantive analytical procedures for these accounts. Tests of details of balances help establish the monetary correctness of the accounts they relate to and therefore are substantive tests. For example, confirmations test for monetary misstatements in accounts receivable and are therefore substantive tests. Similarly, counts of inventory and cash on hand are also substantive tests. OSelect the appropriate types of audit tests Typically, auditors use all five types of tests when performing an audit of the financial statements, but certain types may be emphasized, depending on the circumstances. Recall that risk assessment procedures are required in all audits to assess the risk of material misstatement while the other four types of tests are performed in response to the risks identified to provide the basis for the auditor’s opinion. Note also that only risk assessment procedures, especially procedures to obtain an understanding of controls, and tests of controls are performed in an audit of internal control over financial reporting. Several factors influence the auditor’s choice of the types of tests to select, including the availability of the eight types of evidence, the relative costs of each type of test, the effectiveness of  internal controls, and inherent risks. Only the first two are discussed further because the last two were discussed in earlier chapters. Availability of Types of Evidence for Further Audit Procedures OEach of the four types of further audit procedures involves only certain types of evidence (confirmation, documentation, and so forth. †¢ More types of evidence, six in total, are used for tests of details of balances than for any other type of test. †¢ Only tests of details of balances involve physical examination and confirmation. †¢ Inquiries of the client are made for every type of test. †¢ Documentation is used in every type of test except analytical procedures. †¢ Re performance is used in every type of test except analytical procedures. Auditors may re perform a control as part of a transaction walkthrough or to test a control that is not supported by sufficient documentary evidence. †¢ Recalculation is used to verify the mathematical accuracy of transactions when per forming substantive test of transactions and account balances when per – forming tests of details of balances. Relative Costs When auditors must decide which type of test to select for obtaining sufficient appropriate evidence, the cost of the evidence is an important consideration. The types of tests are listed below in order of increasing cost: †¢ Analytical procedures †¢ Risk assessment procedures, including procedures to obtain an understanding of internal control †¢ Tests of controls †¢ Substantive tests of transactions †¢ Tests of details of balances Analytical procedures are the least costly because of the relative ease of making calculations and comparisons. Often, considerable information about potential misstatements can be obtained by simply comparing two or three numbers. Risk assessment procedures, including procedures to obtain an understanding of internal control, are not as costly as other audit tests because auditors can easily make inquiries and observations and perform planning analytical procedures. Also, examining such things as documents  summarizing the client’s business operations and processes and management and governance structure are relatively cheaper than other audit tests. Because tests of controls also involve inquiry, observation, and inspection, their relative costs are also low compared to substantive tests. However, tests of controls are more costly relative to the auditor’s risk assessment procedures due to a greater extent of testing required to obtain evidence that a control is operating effectively, especially when those tests of controls involve re performance. Often, auditors can perform a large number of tests of controls quickly using audit software. Such software can test controls in clients’ computerized accounting systems, such as in computerized accounts receivable systems that automatically authorize sales to existing customers by comparing the proposed sales amount and existing accounts receivable balance with the customer’s credit limit. Substantive tests of transactions cost more than tests of controls that do not include re performance because the former often require recalculations and tracings. In a computerized environment, however, the auditor can often perform substantive tests of transactions quickly for a large sample of transactions. Tests of details of balances almost always cost considerably more than any of the Other types of procedures because of the cost of procedures such as sending confirmations and counting inventories. Because of the high cost of tests of details of balances, auditors usually try to plan the audit to minimize their use. Naturally, the cost of each type of evidence varies in different situations. For example, the cost of an auditor’s test-counting inventory (a substantive test of the details of the inventory balance) often depends on the type and dollar value of the Inventory, its location, and the number of different items. Relationship between Tests of Controls and Substantive Tests To better understand tests of controls and substantive tests, let’s examine how they differ. An exception in a test of control only indicates the likelihood of misstatements affecting the dollar value of the financial statements, whereas an exception in a substantive test of transactions or a test of details of balances is a financial statement misstatement. Exceptions in tests of controls are called control test deviations. From the three levels of control deficiencies: deficiencies, significant deficiencies, and  material weaknesses. Auditors are most likely to believe material dollar misstatements exist in the financial statements when control test deviations are considered to be significant deficiencies or material weaknesses. Auditors should then perform substantive tests of transactions or tests of details of balances to determine whether material dollar misstatements have actually occurred. Assume that the client’s controls require an independent clerk to verify the quantity, price, and extension of each sales invoice, after which the clerk must initial the duplicate invoice to indicate performance. A test of control audit procedure is to inspect a sample of duplicate sales invoices for the initials of the person who verified the information. If a significant number of documents lack initials, the auditor should consider implications for the audit of internal control over financial reporting and follow up with substantive tests for the financial statement audit. This can be done by extending tests of duplicate sales invoices to include verifying prices, extensions, and footings (substantive tests of transactions) or by increasing the sample size for the confirmation of accounts receivable (substantive test of details of balances). Even though the control is not operating effectively, the invoices may still be correct, especially if the person originally preparing On the other hand, if no documents or only a few of them are missing initials, the control will be considered effective and the auditor can therefore reduce substantive tests of transactions and tests of details of balances. However, some re performance and recalculation substantive tests are still necessary to provide the auditor assurance that the clerk did not initial documents without actually performing the control procedure or performed it carelessly. Because of the need to complete some re performance and recalculation tests, many auditors perform them as a part of the original tests of controls. Others wait until they know the results of the tests of controls and then determine the total sample size needed. Relationship between Analytical Procedures and Substantive Tests Like tests of controls, analytical procedures only indicate the likelihood of misstatements affecting the dollar value of the financial statements. Unusual fluctuations in the relationships of an account to other accounts, or to nonfinancial information, may indicate an increased likelihood that material misstatements exist without necessarily providing direct evidence of a  material misstatement. When analytical procedures identify unusual fluctuations, auditors should perform substantive tests of transactions or tests of details of balances to determine whether dollar misstatements have actually occurred. If the auditor performs substantive analytical procedures and believes that the likelihood of material misstatement is low, other substantive tests can be reduced. For accounts with small balances and only minimal potential for material misstatements, such as many supplies and prepaid expense accounts, auditors often limit their tests to substantive analytical procedures if they conclude the accounts are reasonably stated. Trade-Off between Tests of Controls and Substantive Tests There is a trade-off between tests of controls and substantive tests. During planning, auditors decide whether to assess control risk below the maximum. When they do, they must then perform tests of controls to determine whether the assessed level of control risk is supported. (They must always perform test of controls in an audit of internal control over financial reporting.) If tests of controls support the control risk assessment, planned detection risk in the audit risk model is increased, and planned substantive tests can therefore be reduced. Figure 13-3 shows the relationship between substantive tests and control risk assessment (including tests of controls) at differing levels of internal control effectiveness Impact of information technology on audit testing Auditing standards provide guidance for auditors of entities that transmit process, maintain, or access significant information electronically. Examples of electronic evidence include records of electronic fund transfers and purchase orders transmitted through electronic data interchange (EDI). Evidence of the performance of automated controls, such as the computer’s comparison of proposed sales orders to customer credit limits, may also only be in electronic form. The standards recognize that when a significant amount of audit evidence exists in electronic form, it may not be practical or possible to reduce detection risk to an acceptable level by performing only substantive tests. For example, the potential for improper initiation or alteration of information may be greater if information is maintained only in electronic form. In these circumstances, the auditor should perform  tests of controls to gather evidence in support of an assessed level of control risk below maximum for the affected financial statement assertions. Although some substantive tests are still required, the auditor can significantly reduce substantive tests if the results of tests of controls support the effectiveness of controls. In the audit of a larger public company, computer-performed controls (these are called automated controls) must be tested if the auditor considers them to be key controls for reducing the likelihood of material misstatements in the financial statements. Because of the inherent consistency of IT processing, however, the auditor may be able to reduce the extent of testing of an automated control. For example, software based control is almost certain to function consistently unless the program is changed. Once auditors determine an automated control is functioning properly, they can focus subsequent tests on assessing whether any changes have occurred that will limit the effectiveness of the control. Such tests might include determining whether any changes have occurred to the program and whether these changes were properly authorized and tested prior to implementation. This approach leads to significant audit efficiencies when the auditor determines that automated controls tested in the prior year’s audit have not been changed and continue to be subject to effective general controls. To test automated controls or data, the auditor may need to use computer-assisted audit techniques or use reports produced by IT to test the operating effectiveness of IT general controls, such as program change controls and access controls. In many cases, testing of automated controls may be performed by IT audit specialists. When auditors test manual controls that rely on IT-generated reports, they must consider both the Effectiveness of management’s review and automated controls over the accuracy of Information in the report.

The State Of Nature By Thomas Hobbes - 3347 Words

â€Å"During the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war; and such a war as is of every man against every man.†1 Here Thomas Hobbes portrays the state of nature; in which life is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.2 He then proposes a social contract where people of the state enter into a commonwealth governed by an absolute power. Through this social contract, the people give up their right to â€Å"everything† to the sovereign in exchange for security, thereby, giving the sovereign absolute authority over the entire commonwealth. However, Hobbes’s theory presents an exception to this â€Å"unlimited power.† He states that Leviathan, the sovereign, does no wrong unless he violates a subject’s right to self-preservation.3 In other words, a subject of the sovereign is not obligated to obey that sovereign if that sovereign threatens the life or person of the subject. But isnâ €™t this retained right of self-defense incompatible with the absolute sovereignty that Hobbes claims for the commonwealth? Susanne Sreedhar argues that with the help of varying interpretations of Hobbes’s theory, in addition to the Razian model, she can find a solution to this puzzle. By treating the sovereign’s commands as â€Å"exclusionary reasons,†4 Sreedhar maintains that instances of disobedience can be justified in cases where subjects have nonexcludable first-order reasons for an action.5 However, her Razian model is in some measure tooShow MoreRelatedThomas Hobbes And The State Of Nature1387 Words   |  6 Pagesthe book, Thomas Hobbes describes the state of nature in which men, driven by appetites and aversions, are constantly in a state of competition and conflict with one another. Because there are limited resources like food and shelter and people have a desire for the same end, there is no peace or unity in society. Every man must fend for hi mself in this individualistic, power struggle. The combination of finite resources, mistrust of other men, and equality of power in the state of nature, an unendingRead MoreThe State Of Nature By Thomas Hobbes2160 Words   |  9 PagesMichael Swain Paper 2 PS 171 (1) The state of nature as Thomas Hobbes claims is violent, dangerous and solitary. In a state of nature mankind is subjected to constant fear of death and it essentially runs every aspect of mans life. Yet a human is a rational being and there is a drive to get rid of this fear, one of the rights that Hobbes brings up is the right of self preservation and the fact that a man must not bring harm to himself. Hobbes discusses how natural rights are different than naturalRead MoreThomas Hobbes And The State Of Nature1727 Words   |  7 Pagesphilosophers the notion of the State of Nature, a concept used to describe the hypothetical conditions of human life before the development of societies, is important in determining political societies, or the governmental structures that composed these. However, many philosophers have different notions of the State of Nature. In this essay I am going to use the writings of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacque Rousseau to explain how their not ions of the State of Nature shape the way they envisionRead MoreThe State of Nature: Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury1691 Words   |  7 PagesIn this essay, I will present three reasons as to why the absolute authority of the sovereign in Hobbes’s state of nature and social contract is justified. The three reasons Hobbes uses are: the argument from contract, the argument from authorisation and the argument from weakness of mixed or divided sovereignty. Firstly, I shall explain Hobbes’s understanding of human nature and the natural condition of humanity which causes the emergence of the social contract. I shall then analyse each argumentRead MoreJohn Thomas Hobbes And The State Of Nature1162 Words   |  5 PagesOpposite to Augustine, Thomas Hobbes believes that the laws set what is wrong and without laws there would be no right or wrong. In Hobbes book Leviathan, argues government is an artificial part of life. Without government, we would be in the â€Å"state of natu re†. In the state of nature, we are in a condition of war. Hobbes argues that in the condition of war â€Å"every man against every man, this also is consequent; that nothing can be unjust. The notions of right and wrong, justice and injustice, haveRead MoreThomas Hobbes State of Nature Essay1152 Words   |  5 Pagesbeginning, there was a darker side to the preservation of life. Man lived a life of kill or be killed, without any regard for other than his own. Life was solitary, poor, brutish and short. This barbaric and primitive state is what Thomas Hobbes believed to be the State of Nature. Practical reason dictates that when threatened you either act, give up your property, or anticipate for a sign of weakness to act. This means that all have a right to everything so long as it can be attained. People cannotRead MoreState of Nature and Freedom: Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes1424 Words   |  6 PagesState of Nature and Freedom In the Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes places limits on the freedom of individuals in the social contract, as well as individuals in the state of nature. Hobbes writes that in the state nature, â€Å"the liberty each man hath to use his own power as he will himself for the preservation of his own nature; doing anything which, in his own judgement and reason, he shall conceive to be the aptest means there unto† (ch. 14,  ¶1). An individual’s will is only free when there is no extraneousRead MoreThomas Hobbes State of Nature in Leviathan Essay847 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to the view Thomas Hobbes presents within the selected passaged in the Leviathan, we live in a narcissistic society where man’s condition is primarily driven by ego and where the achievement of personal goals is deemed paramount. Within the State of Nature that is, outside of civil society we have a right to all things ‘even to one another’s body’, and there would be no agree d authority to ensure the moral grounds of our decisions. Therefore since there are no restrictions and no sharedRead MoreThomas Hobbes State of Nature in Leviathan Essay1433 Words   |  6 Pagestheories that grew from them. However, in Thomas Hobbes Leviathan we see a departure from this inequality. The argument of people being equal and the state of man that he develops from that belief are central not only to his own theory but to the world of political science today. It is his examination of people being equal, followed by the state of nature and war, and finally his look at various laws of nature that lead a natural path to his political solution. Hobbes assertion that all people are equalRead MoreThe State Of Nature By Thomas Hobbes And Jean Jacques Rousseau1800 Words   |  8 Pagesquestion whether war is a product of Man s nature or an outcome of nurture has been a source of intellectual debate. In the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries each of the political philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau took different stances regarding this issue in their deduction of the state of nature; a concept describing people s lives before the existence of civilized societies and laws. Thomas Hobbes imagines a state of nature where each person is naturally fully free

Understanding The Structure Of Customer Service Essay

Outcome 3: Understand the structure of customer service 3.1: Explain the features of different customer service models and customer service standards Customer service models and customer service standards both have different features. The customer service models can either increase customer satisfaction or decrease customer complaints. The customer satisfaction is increased by being responsive and helpful to your customers and brining out a bigger range of products that are value for money. The customer complaints are decreased by making sure that you are giving out the correct information and resolving any queries or problems that customers may have. An atmosphere of service may also be created by both internal and external customers. Services can include training for staff members and ensuring that the policies and procedures are being followed. Another feature of customer service models is ensuring that you provide excellent service to your customers. To do this, you need to meet your customer’s needs and expectations. You will also need to ensure that you have knowledge on the assistance and advice that you are able to provide for you customers. One feature of customer service standards is ensuring that you are continuously updating the policies and procedures to ensure that you meet the customer’s needs. This means that you will need to ensure that you conform to equality and diversity when dealing with customers. Also, you will need to ensure that you are dealingShow MoreRelatedThe Organizational Structure And Performance1674 Words   |  7 Pagesof having reinforcement helps in measuring modifications of behavioral that takes place. Organizations structures have an effect employee satisfaction hence production and performance. Despite this, the relationship between the structure and performance are experienced through different channels in work place (Edmans, Li, Zhang, 2014). 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Industry structure changes while responding to changes in competitiveRead MoreCustomer Centricity : The Right Thing1053 Words   |  5 PagesCustomer centricity, we all know it’s the right thi ng, but why do so many fail to achieve it Customer Centricity defined The fact that the customer should be the focus for any business is not something that I need to go over with you, but why is it that most organizations to this day cant seem to quite grasp that idea; is something worth discussing. The reason why this is so important today is that we have seen a shift in the balance of power, which is power going back to the customers. They nowRead MoreIkea Invades America1264 Words   |  6 Pagesbillion dollars. They operate in 22 countries and have 154 full service distribution stores. IKEA is a highly differentiated service and product provider, emphasizing high-quality product at the lowest prices via non-traditional positioning strategies. 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The Education System Of Higher Education - 1096 Words

Children are often told they can become anything they desire. They’re told that dreams can become reality. However, the structure of higher education facilities doesn t support a child’s dreams. The dreams of many, not just children, are halted by the current education system of society. People dream of becoming doctors, lawyers, and engineers. Regardless of their ambition, they’ll never be able to accomplish their goals without paying a lot of money. Higher education costs a substantial amount of money across the globe. Additionally, not everyone is able to afford this cost. There are scholarships available to students, but there aren’t enough to support every student who dreams of receiving an education. Moreover, only a select few†¦show more content†¦Attending college seems to bring more problems than rewards. Sara Goldrick-Rab notes how society has changed over the years. She claims that a high school education isn’t enough to prepare people for the current job market (Goldrick-Rab and Andrew). If Tuition was removed or reduced to an amount that everyone could afford, then the number of people attending colleges would increase. Struggling to meet tuition is hard enough, yet a student still has other matters to address to ensure their success. For a student to cover their tuition and student loans, they need to find a job. However, students can’t simply offer up all of their funds to attend college. They need to conserve money in order to cover living expenses. Fran Cubberley, the vice president for enrollment management at Delaware County Community College, points out that the cost of attending college exceeds the cost of tuition (Cubberley 22). As a result, students are stuck with a handful of difficult decisions to cover the additional costs. One choice that a student makes is changing their working status to full-time. Working more hours affects a student’s success in completing their education. If students work on a regular basis and attend school, they’re going to have less available time to study. In addition, students will have less personal time. Fran Cubberley suggests that eve n if community colleges were free, students may not give up working while attending school. Although,Show MoreRelatedHigh Education : A Education System Of Public Higher Education945 Words   |  4 Pagesof a wasted educational system and unmotivated college campuses that will leave the population uneducated. What will be the downfall of society if the current and future generations do not have open access to higher education? Despite California’s decreasing state budget, the purpose of enforcing higher education is to have job stability in the future, assign educated policymakers to take over the state’s affairs, and meet the demands of the labor market. 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Reflection on Professional and Ethical Issues Sample for Students

Question: Discuss about the Reflection on Professional and Ethical Issues. Answer: During practice, it is necessary for the nurses to know the key elements of the professional and ethical issues. The issues may create challenges for the nurses that need to be overcome. According to Wilcoxon, Remley Jr and Gladding (2013, p.21), the nurses need to know about the codes of Ethics for the nurses. Her ethical codes of practice guide the students of bachelors degree to a variety of settings. The code of practice help the nurses to know that how to treat others in the care setting. The main aim of the ethics is to promote the practice safely. This is effective for both the nurses and patients. In view of Scott (2016, p.46), everyone has freedom to make decision regarding their health and others need to respect those decisions. These ethics help to improve the self-confidence of the nurses as well as the patients. The nurses need to focus on the wellbeing of the patients with dignity and respect. During my bachelors degree, when I was recruited to the psychiatric department, I noticed many things. I experienced the mal practice of the ethics. Jonsen, Siegler and Winslade (2015, p.54) mentioned that the nurses need to more polite with the patients and should not mal practice the professional codes of ethics. However, I found that most of nurses do misbehave with the patients who are suffering from dementia. They did not show respect to the patient and did not provide proper caring to the patients. They did not show minimum dignity or respect to the patients. In this case, I felt very awkward to work with them. Masters (2015, p.214) mentioned that in case of health care sector, the communication plays important role. However, the nurses with me did not communicate with the patients properly and most of the time they were busy with their personal interest. These kind of practices are completely different form the ethics and unauthentic as well. I decided to discuss this with my senior subject coordinator. She assured me that she would discuss the matter with the senior medical officers to improve the situation. After few days, the authority called a meeting with us and asked for a training session. During the training session, we have learnt many things about the patient care. In the training session, few of the nurses were warned about their mal practices. However, those nurses did not feel necessity to follow the guidance of the ethics and continued the mal practices. The higher authority dismissed those nurses to improve the situation. The patient with dementia and other mental problems need more attention and caring (Singhapakdi, Rallapalli and Rao 2015, p.269). Therefore, the higher authority decided to place CCRV camera in the wards to observe the behavior of the nurses. After placing the CCTV camera, it was seen that most of the nurses modified their behavior and concentrated on their workings. Strange (2015, p.32) stated that the mental patients cannot communicate properly hence, they cannot express themselves properly. The nurses need to know the verbal and non-verbal communication skills to communicate with the mental patients. After joining the department, I have learnt many things like non-verbal communication skills. I developed my body language and learnt about the sign language to communicate with the patients who are suffering from mental diseases. I try to follow the ethics, which help to understand the authentic and unauthentic practices in nursing. I try to communicate properly with the patient and maintain the dignity. My subject coordinator helped me to develop some skills and techniques to achieve better outcome. In case of health care system and during working in the psychiatric department, I come to know that I need to maintain the confidentiality and obey the Data Protection Act. My subject coordinator advised me to gain the trust of the patient first so t hat he could share his feelings and problems with me properly. She also suggested me to avoid the medication errors that most of the nurses do. Makela and Sampson (2017, p.56) mentioned that the medication errors can be fetal for the patients, hence the nurses need to be more careful during administration of medication. I tried to be more careful during providing the medication as it can affect my career as well. Wrong medication can be dangerous for both the nurses and patients (Cherry and Jacob 2016, p.62). I naturally share the important information of the patients with the family members of the patients and with my senior advisers. DeCamp (2015, p.100) mentioned that it is the responsibility of a nurse to protect the crucial data with confidentiality and should not share them with others. As per the ethics, during working in the health care center, the nurses need to be careful about the patient safety. Hence, I need to be careful about the patient hygiene. I need to sterilize the necessary equipments such as injections on the regular basis. Huston (2013, p.24) mentioned that there are various things that a nurse needs to maintain for the patient hygiene. In need to wash my hands after using the toilet. Moreover, I need to help the patient as well to wash his or her hand every time they use the toilet. I need to help the patient in their personal caring to avoid the infection. The codes of ethics state that it is the responsibility of a nurse to respect the emotion of the patients and protect them from the hazard (Preshaw et al. 2016, p.495). They need to provide quality care to the patients. As a nurse, I need to focus on my career and on the patients. I need to manage the intravenous line and record the details of my patients. It is my duty to help the patients physically and mentally, who needs the physical and mental support. As mentioned by McMenemy, Poulter and Burton (2014, p .36), the patients depends on the nurses mostly therefore they need to provide support to them for the wellbeing. In this respect, I need to mention one of my bad experiences that I faced during working in the ward. On that day, my subject coordinator instructed me to give the injections to the patients. One of a patient was not agreed for the medication and I was trying to inject the injection. In such situation, I lost my patience and tried to administer the injection forcefully, which hurt the patient. This was unethical and my subject coordinator handled the situation very carefully. She advised me to keep patience in such cases and I should not force him for the injection. I needed to relax him at first. She suggested me that if I could not handle the situation, then I need to ask for her help further. I realized that I need to be more firm and polite during working with the dementia patients and do not force them for anything. I have learnt many things during working under my subject coordinator and she helped me much. Brown (2015, p.57) opined that the nurses need to gain knowledge from their experience and put that experience in further cases. I need to respect the patients with dignity as well as the family members of them. It is my responsibility to protect my patients from hazards and problems. As the patient had fear in administration of injection, I need to make him feel comfortable at first and try to teach him the necessity of the injection, which I did not do. I need to remind the experience in future so that I do not face such situation again. I need to learn about the codes of ethics in detail t rectify myself and handle the patients more carefully that will help to grow my career graph. I am improving myself with the time and gaining more knowledge that will help in f uture. I hope can handle the patients in better way in future and will be able to avoid the unethical practices and conflict. After the bachelors degree, I hope can join as a registered nurse in an organization, which is a responsible job. On the basis of above discussion, I can conclude that in nursing the professional codes of ethics play major role. As a student of bachelors degree of nursing, I need to follow the guidelines of the ethics. . These ethics help to improve the self-confidence of the nurses as well as the patients. The nurses need to focus on the wellbeing of the patients with dignity and respect. I should be careful about the patient hygiene and maintain them. I need to be more polite and responsible to the patients. I should not share the confidential data with others without the permission of the patient and family members. It is my responsibility to protect my patients from hazards and problems. I need to provide quality care to the patients and should not do any unethical practice that can harm my career. I should maintain the equality and reduce the practice of biasness. References: Brown, G., 2015. Ethical and Moral Courage is Distress among Professional Nurses: A Workplace Issue.ABNF Journal,26(3), p.57. Cherry, B. and Jacob, S.R., 2016.Contemporary nursing: Issues, trends, management. Elsevier Health Sciences. DeCamp, M., 2015. Ethical issues when using social media for health outside professional relationships.International Review of Psychiatry,27(2), pp.97-105. Huston, C.J., 2013.Professional issues in nursing: Challenges and opportunities. Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Jonsen, A.R., Siegler, M. and Winslade, W.J., 2015.Clinical Ethics: A Practical Approach to Ethical Decisions in Clinical Medicine, 8E. McGraw Hill Professional. Makela, J.P. and Sampson, J.P., 2017. Ethical Issues Associated with Information and Communication Technology in Counseling and Guidance.International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance,14(1), p.56. Masters, K., 2015.Role development in professional nursing practice. Jones Bartlett Publishers. McMenemy, D., Poulter, A. and Burton, P., 2014.A handbook of ethical practice: a practical guide to dealing with ethical issues in information and library work. Elsevier. Preshaw, D.H., Brazil, K., McLaughlin, D. and Frolic, A., 2016. Ethical issues experienced by healthcare workers in nursing homes: Literature review.Nursing ethics,23(5), pp.490-506. Scott, E., 2016. EXAMINING THE LEGAL, PROFESSIONAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES OF GAINING PATIENT CONSENT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM UK.MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY AND AGING-CHALLENGES FOR NURSING IN EUROPE, p.46. Singhapakdi, A., Rallapalli, K.C. and Rao, C.P., 2015. Personal and Professional Values Underlying Ethical Decisions: A Comparison of American and Thai Marketers. InProceedings of the 1995 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference(pp. 269-269). Springer International Publishing. Strange, H., 2015. P3-67 Patient and professional experiences with non-invasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD) and testing (NIPT): social and ethical issues raised. Wilcoxon, A., Remley Jr, T.P. and Gladding, S.T., 2013.Ethical, legal, and professional issues in the practice of marriage and family therapy. Pearson Higher Ed. Bibliography: Brown, C., Murdock, N.L. and Abels, A., 2014. Ethical Issues Associated With Training in University Counseling Centers.Training and Education in Professional Psychology,8(4), p.269. Chang, E. and Daly, J., 2015.Transitions in nursing: Preparing for professional practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Drew, S. and Jones, G., 2014. Costly ethical issues in legal practice.Precedent (Sydney, NSW), (123), p.44. Marin, F., 2017. Putting health in the marketplace. Ethical issues about providing online health risk information.Medicina e Morale,66(1), pp.31-43. Mealer, M. and Jones RN, J., 2014. Methodological and ethical issues related to qualitative telephone interviews on sensitive topics.Nurse researcher,21(4), pp.32-37. Pozgar, G.D., 2014.Legal and ethical issues for health professionals. Jones Bartlett Publishers. Swain, J., 2016. ETHICAL ISSUES AND CONSIDERATIONS.Designing Research in Education: Concepts and Methodologies, p.74. Theodoridou, M., 2014. Professional and ethical responsibilities of health-care workers in regard to vaccinations.Vaccine,32(38), pp.4866-4868

Had more sense. Whether his neighbors were cool or Essay Example For Students

Had more sense. Whether his neighbors were cool or Essay not was notreally the point; Derek was a private person and did not like tofeel that his comings, goings, and doings were known to justanyone. Oddly enough, Derek could justify the volume of hismusic because it served to mask his personal actions. He lookedat Arthur who was eyeing him, fists on hips, with a sardonicgrin. Derek ignored it. You want some? he said. It was moreof a statement than a question; Arthur was an avid smoker of theHerb. Sure, if you havent already smoked it all. Arthur wastrying to joke, but Derek suddenly did not feel like responding. He was vaguely aware that he was not being very friendly, butArthurs exhuberance was suddenly bothering him. Only a coupleof minutes ago Derek felt excited about Arthur. But now Arthursenergy, as much of it as there was, seemed stale. Derek disappeared into his darkened bedroom and pretended toroot around, trying to clear his head. Im just being moody, hethought. I cant relate to him cause hes not stonedyet!Derek soon emerged carrying a bag of green powder and a packet ofrolling papers. He did not look at Arthur, but went into thelivingroom and turned on the lamp in the corner. He left thecandle burning and turned down the music a touch. Then he setabout rolling a joint. Arthur surveyed Dereks livingroom with his permanentlycurious eye. It was rather bare: there were only a few printshanging up to take away the starkness of the white walls, and thefurniture was limited to a coffee table, a few chairs and abeanbag scattered over the cheap indoor/outdoor carpeting on thefloor. Hasnt changed since the last time I was here, hethought. Arthur liked to spend a lot of time making his place ashomey as possible. When he saw the lighted candle, Arthur raisedan eyebrow, and he began to wonder. To Arthur, the use of marijuana was a social thing, anexperience to be shared with others. He did not understand howDerek could sit all by himself in the dark, alone with hisswirling and scattered thoughts. That was because, though hewould never have admitted it, Arthur was afraid of his thoughts. Despite his boisterous, energetic and positive front, deep downArthur did not trust himself, and his thoughts and desires oftenhaunted him. He tried to drown them out with constant movementand action, and the idea that Derek was doing what he dared notdo made him worried. He did not realize that Derek was even moreuncomfortable among his peers, when stoned, than when he wasalone. Arthur crossed the room and turned down the music so hecould talk to his friend. He was trying to think of what to sayto get Derek to leave with him, to get out of these oppressivesurroundings. So whats new, Bud? he asked. Derek did not look up fromthe floor where he was carefully rolling the joint. Not much, he said in an uncommunicative tone. Derek heldthe joint up to the light and eyed his handiwork critically. Satisfied, he set about rolling another. He was preparing to bein a better mood, but he wanted a few moments to think aboutsomething else entirely. Arthur, knowing his friend well,recognized this and kept silent. Scanning the room he noticed apencil and notepad on the coffee table in front of him. Curiousas always, Arthur reached for it and saw that it was covered withwandering doodles and almost illegible scrawls. .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c , .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c .postImageUrl , .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c , .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c:hover , .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c:visited , .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c:active { border:0!important; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c:active , .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uff76c98e2b2961cfa8c168ba229a586c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Christianity EssayDerek was aware of Arthurs movements. He said nothing, butwondered what Arthur would say, and waited in anticipation. Often when high Derek would try to write down some of the randomthoughts which occured to him, thoughts which at the time seemedlike indisputable Truth. He took his time rolling the joint andcleaned up thoroughly afterwords. Then he carefully re-rolledhis bag of pot and sat back watching Arthurs expressions as heread. Unfortunately for Derek, Arthurs face remained impassiveand he finally threw the notepad down without a comment. Derekwas disappointed and stared at his friend, feeling lost. He hadthought that the few lines he had scrawled were quite good, andhe wondered that Arthur could remain unmoved by them. Not that this was anything new. Derek often felt frustratedby what he saw as the insensitivity of others to what heconsidered Truth. Statements like The Oneness of All, were tooeasily seen as being corny,

Pro Wrestling free essay sample

Im glad because Im given opportunity to give a speech here in this very morning. My speech is about pro wrestling, whether they are real or they are Just a show. We will write a custom essay sample on Pro Wrestling or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Around half century ago, there were few shows founded. One of them is World Wrestling Federation (WWF), which is now known as World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), which is now the biggest show. This show was founded by Vince J. McMahon and Toots Mondt. WWE has 4 shows recently, Monday Night Raw LIVE on the USA network 9/8 pm, Tuesday Night NXT on Sci Fi network 10/9 pm, Thursday Night Superstars on WGN America network 8/9 pm, Friday Night Smack down on my Network TV 8/9pm. Monday Night Raw Just reached 900th episode at 30 August 2010. Research shows that, Monday Night Raw had won some sports tv like ESPN, Fox Sports, NBA, NASCAR and many more. In my opinion, professional wrestling is Just a show. There are reasons why I felt so; professional wrestling are scripted and the matches are predetermined. Winner or loser of the match is already decided before the match starts. Professional wrestlers also practice the in-ring action before the match starts. They have to practice to slam opponent but no to hurt the opponent, who is very difficult and need to practise a lot. There are storyline for professional wrestling. Crowds like the storyline more than the wrestling itself. Thats why they buy the merchandise to show how they support the professional wrestlers. However, some of the professional wrestler bleeds during the match. This is real, but this is caused by accident; they really do hit each other. PROS The very first thing you need to understand about professional wrestling is that its fake. I hope that Im not ruining anyones fun here, but all those professional wrestlers are Just some great actors. All matches are predetermined and scripted months before by bookers, which means some matches are already decided which wrestler become the good guy and which wrestler become the bad guy. Even the behind-the-scenes action or in-the-ring action are predetermined, and the wrestlers develop their own characters according the script by the help of the writers and executives. For an example, a wrestler switches allegiances or team up against a third party based on the storyline. Audience often shocked by the reaction of the wrestler, thanks to the creative writer of the script. One professional wrestler may have many characteristics, depending on which script they in. They wrestle out of their own personalities, which is why they are actors. The storylines are more interesting than wrestling itself for some of the fans. The effectiveness of storylines to enhance interest in professional wrestling was proved. Like I mentioned above, Monday Night Raw had Just reached 900th episode and it had been a better show than some other sports channel! Mr McMahon called this as sports entertainment. It is indeed an entertainment, because professional wrestlers are not engaged in a competition, since the outcome of the matches are already decided; crowd are aggressive nowadays, so it is entertaining for them, as the storyline is as absurd as the soap theatre. Professional wrestler is not an easy Job: they have to be athletes, performer, stunt- ability to heal from the injuries faster than normal person, they must also not let those injuries visible to the crowd. It is never easy to become a professional wrestler nd it takes time. Things like how to land punches, how to slam your opponent, how to fall so that you wont get injured, how execute wrestling moves properly and make them look like real, and that entire sort of thing; it takes time to master those things. For an example, Piledriver, one of the wrestling moves, they have to hold their opponent higher than their knees, so that the force of the moves is on the knees, and not on his opponents head. If you ever tried to execute wrestling moves at home, you may have broken someone elses neck! Although the outcome of the matches are always predetermined, but thing is not always goes perfectly as planned. For sure, good wrestlers can improvise what happens during the match. Some matches are practiced move by move, but most just the outcome and some major happenings decided earlier. For example, two wrestlers might go into a match knowing which of them will win, who will start out dominant, which will interfere in the match, and what move will finish off the loser. In accordance with the wrestlers skill, they will make up the rest of the match as they go along. They generally cooperate to make the match become better and look good, and they often whisper moves to each other during the match. Crowds are easily influenced by this storyline based professional wrestling. They will threat some of the professional wrestlers as their idol and keep cheering for them for anything those professional wrestlers do. Here are the business tricks; they sell professional wrestlers merchandise. To show how much they love and support for their idol, crowds will buy the merchandise. Not only merchandise, professional wrestling also have magazine. People who love wrestling will subscribe to the magazine. Professional wrestler will also interact with their fans. This is how they earn profit from the crowds. This shows that professional wrestling are Just like a show. However, it is real when wrestlers bleed. They rarely use fake blood. They always use razor blade to cut themselves when it is time for them to bleed. This usually occurs when his opponent executed finishing move on himself. When he cut himself, is it called blading while when he bleeds, it is called Juicing. When a wrestlers pponent executed finishing move, he will quickly cut himself across the forehead, which will produce enough blood to give him a convincingly battered appearance. But if they cut themselves anywhere else, it would be extremely dangerous. Sometimes they bleed from actually contact. Even they try to pull their punches, accidents will also happen as they really do hit each other. They called this bleeding as hardwaY. Professional wrestling is Just a show, it is not reality. But it is still an entertaining show though professional wrestling is fake in most way.